Apatosaurus (/əˌpætɵˈsɔrəs/) is a genus of sauropod dinosaurs that lived about 150 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period (Kimmeridgian and Tithonian ages). It was one of the largest land animals that ever existed. The name Apatosaurus means 'deceptive lizard', so-given because the chevron bones were similar to those of a prehistoric marine lizard, Mosasaurus. The composite term Apatosaurus comes from the Greek names apate (ἀπάτη/apatelos ἀπατηλός) meaning "deception"/"deceptive" and sauros (σαῦρος) meaning "lizard".
The cervical vertebrae were less elongated and more heavily constructed than those of Diplodocus and the bones of the leg were much stockier (despite being longer), implying a more robust animal. The tail was held above the ground during normal locomotion. Like most sauropods, Apatosaurus had only a single large claw on each forelimb, with the first three toes on the hind limb possessing claws.
Fossils of Apatosaurus have been found in the Nine Mile Quarry and Bone Cabin Quarry in Wyoming and at sites in Colorado, Oklahoma and Utah, present in stratigraphic zones 2-6.[1]
Description[]
Life restoration of Apatosaurus
Comparison of A. ajax (orange) and A. louisae (red) with a human (blue) and Brontosaurus parvus (green)
Apatosaurus was a large, long-necked quadrupedal animal with a long whip-like tail. Its forelimbs were slightly shorter than its hindlimbs. One measurement places the total length of Apatosaurus at 24 meters (80 ft) and its weight at 24-32 tons, roughly the weight of four elephants.[2] Estimates for A. louisae were 20,600 kg (45,000 lb)[3] and 22,407 kg (49,400 lb).Other estimates of the body mass of adult Apatosaurus species range from 18,000 kg (40,000 lb) to 35,000 kg (77,000 lb). A microscopic study of Apatosaurus bones concluded that the animals grew rapidly when young and reached near-adult sizes in about 10 years.
A. ajax skull, specimen CMC VP 7180
The skull was small in proportion to the size of the animal. The jaws were lined with spatulate teeth, which resembled chisels, suited to a herbivorous diet. Like other sauropods, the vertebrae of the neck were deeply bifurcated; that is, they carried paired spines, creating a wide and deep profile for the neck. The apparently massive neck was, however, filled with an extensive system of weight-saving air sacs. Apatosaurus, like its close relative Supersaurus, is notable for the incredibly tall spines on its vertebrae, which make up more than half the height of the individual bones. Also unusual among diplodocids is the shape of the tail, which is comparatively thin in breadth and short in height, a profile caused by the vertebral spines decreasing in height rapidly the farther they are from the hips. Apatosaurus also had very long ribs compared to most other diplodocids, giving it an unusually deep chest. The limb bones were also very robust. An article that appeared in the November 1997 issue of Discover Magazine reported research into the mechanics of Apatosaurus tails by Nathan Myhrvold, a computer scientist from Microsoft. Myhrvold carried out a computer simulation of the tail, which in diplodocids like Apatosaurus was a very long, tapering structure resembling a bullwhip. This computer modeling suggested that sauropods were capable of producing a whip-like cracking sound of over 200 decibels, comparable to the volume of a cannon firing.
Apatosaurus lived in small-medium sized herds and used its long neck to forage for low plants. Each forelimb had a claw and three on its hind limbs. As shown by an Apatosaurus ischium discovered, large theropods often attacked Apatosaurus. Apatosaurus had spins down its neck and back, reaching the tip of its tail where it may have had a barbed tip. Apatosaurus' brain had a similar morphology to other diplodocids. Apatosaurus had deeply bifurcated neck vertebrae, forming a depression in the center with neural spines on each side of the trough. A. louisae has about 15 cervical, 10 dorsal, 5 sacral and 82 caudal vertebrae, though it has been noticed that the number of vertebrae varies between species and individuals. Apatosaurus vertebrae is short and robust, closely resembling vertebrae from the unrelated Camarasaurus. The cervical vertebrae support rows of cervical ribs, which become narrower at the top of the neck; nearly making a triangular cross-section. A. louisae has an atlas-axis complex, and the structure is nearly fused to the first cervical.
Cervical vertebra of A. ajax (holotype, YPM 1860) in side and anterior view
Like birds, Apatosaurus had vertebrae that had hollow air sacs in order to reduce weight. In Apatosaurus, the function worked to make the animal less heavy, and more nimble. In birds, the function serves as weight reduction in order for powered flight. Like Supersaurus, Apatosaurus has tall neural spines; making-up nearly half of the vertebrae's height. The animals ribs are very long, giving Apatosaurus a characteristically deep chest compared to other members of diplodocidae. Apatosaurus had very robust limb bones, with stout arm bones. It's humerus resembles Camarasaurus and Brontosaurus. It is noted, however, that the humerus in Brontosaurus and A. ajax bear more similarities with each other than to A. louisae. Charles Gilmore proposed in 1936 that the radius and the ulna would have crossed, though it was revealed later that the bones would have layed parallel in the animals body. Apatosaurus bore a large claw on its forelimbs, a feature all sauropods more evolved than Shunosaurus had. The shape of the tail is unusual for a diplodocid, being comparatively slender, due to the vertebral spines rapidly decreasing in height the farther they are from the hips. Apatosaurus also had very long ribs compared to most other diplodocids, giving it an unusually deep chest. The limb bones were also very robust.[10] Apatosaurus had a single large claw on each forelimb, and the first three toes possessed claws on each hindlimb. The phalangeal formula is 2-1-1-1-1, meaning the phalanx comprises of two bones, and the next only has one. The single ungual is slightly curved in is squared and truncated at its anterior end. The pelvic girdle is made of a robust ilia, fused and co-ossified pubes and ischia. The femora is very short, representing one of the most robust femora in all of known sauropoda. Both the tibia and the fibula are different from those in Diplodocus, and indistinguishable from Camarasaurus. The fibula is is both longer and most slender than the tibia. The foot has three claws on the innermost toes, making the digit formula 3-4-5-3-2. The first metatarsal is shortest, like in many other diplodocids.
Artistic interpretation of A. louisae
Studies in 2020 revealed that Apatosaurus likely had a neck more vertically inclined than previously thought. This applies with all diplodocids.
Classification[]
Shoulder blade and coracoid of A. ajax
Apatosaurus is a member of the family Diplodocidae, a clade of gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. The family includes some of the longest creatures ever to walk the earth, including Diplodocus, Supersaurus, Suuwassea, and Barosaurus. Within the subfamily Apatosaurinae, Apatosaurus may be most closely related to Suuwassea, Supersaurus and Brontosaurus.[3][4][5]
Tschopp, Mateus, and Benson (2015) find by identifying remains individually:
| Apatosaurinae |
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Species[]
Arthur Lakes' painting of YPM crews excavating fossils of Apatosaurus ajax at Quarry 10 in Morrison.
Apatosaurus louisae skeleton, Carnegie Museum
In 1877, Othniel Charles Marsh published the name of the holotype species Apatosaurus ajax, which he called after the hero Ajax from Greek mythology. Since then, two partial skeletons of A. ajax have been found, including part of a skull. He followed this in 1879 with a description of another, more complete specimen, which he thought represented a new genus and named Brontosaurus excelsus. In 1903, Elmer Riggs decided that Brontosaurus excelsus was so similar to Apatosaurus ajax that it belonged in the same genus. Riggs then re-classified the species as Apatosaurus excelsus. According to the rules of the ICZN (which governs the scientific names of animals), the name Apatosaurus, having been published first, had priority as the official name; Brontosaurus was a junior synonym and therefore discarded from formal use. The name was not formally removed from the records of paleontology until 1974. In 2015, the name Brontosaurus was assigned to its own genus due to a study proving that Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus were different. Fossils of this animal have been found in Nine Mile Quarry and Bone Cabin Quarry in Wyoming, and at sites in Colorado, Oklahoma, Utah, USA.
Valid species[]
Apatosaurine specimen AMNH 460 at the AMNH as re-mounted in 1995
Apatosaurine mount (FMNH P25112) in the FMNH
Specimen NSMT-PV 20375, National Museum of Nature and Science, which may be A. ajax or a new species
Many Apatosaurus species were named from fragmentary remains, especially since Marsh named as many as possible during the Bone Wars. Paul Upchurch et al. (2005) analyzed species and relationships in Apatosaurus, finding A. louisae to be the most basal, with FMNH P25112 following, then a polytomy of A. ajax, A. parvus and A. excelsus. This was revised and expanded on by many more specimens in 2015, resolving relations differently and splitting Brontosaurus.
- A. ajax is the type species of the genera, and was named by the paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1877 after Ajax, the hero from Greek mythology. It is the holotype for the genera, and two partial skeletons have been found including part of a skull.
- A. louisae was named by William Holland, in 1915. It is known from one partial skeleton, which was found in Colorado, in the United States.
Robert T. Bakker made A. yahnahpin the type species of a new genus, Eobrontosaurus in 1998, so it is now properly Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin. It was named by Filla, James and Redman in 1994. One partial skeleton has been found in Wyoming. In 2015, the species was assigned to Brontosaurus.
Cladogram of the Diplodocidae after Lovelace, Hartman, and Wahl, 2008.[5]
Apatosaurus excelsus is known from six partial skeletons, including part of a skull, which have been found in the United States, in Colorado, Oklahoma, Utah, and Wyoming. Apatosaurus louisae was named by William Holland in 1915 in honor of Mrs. Louise Carnegie, wife of Andrew Carnegie who funded field research to find complete dinosaur skeletons in the American West. Apatosaurus louisae is known from one partial skeleton which was found in Colorado in the United States. Apatosaurus parvus was originally known as Elosaurus parvus, but was reclassified as a species of Apatosaurus in 1994.[6] This synonymy was upheld in 2004.[7]
Apatosaurus yahnahpin was named by Filla and Redman in 1994. Robert T. Bakker made A. yahnahpin the type species of a new genus, Eobrontosaurus in 1998,[8] so it is now properly Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin.
History[]
1896 diagram of the Brontosaurus excelsus skeleton by O.C. Marsh. The head is based on material now assigned to Brachiosaurus sp.[9]
Othniel Charles Marsh, a Professor of Paleontology at Yale University, described and named an incomplete juvenile skeleton of Apatosaurus ajax in 1877. Two years later, Marsh announced the discovery of a larger and more complete specimen at Como Bluff, Wyoming — which, because of discrepancies including the size difference, Marsh misidentified as belonging to an entirely new genus and species. He dubbed the new species Brontosaurus excelsus, meaning "thunder lizard", from the ancient Greek brontē/βροντη meaning 'thunder' and sauros/σαυρος meaning 'lizard', and from the Latin excelsus, "to exceed in number", referring to the greater number of sacral vertebrae than in any other genus of sauropod known at the time.
Original Apatosaurus excelsus skeletal mount at the AMNH. This mount is now considered to be outdated.
The finds, representing the largest dinosaur discovered at the time, were nearly complete, lacking only a head, feet, and portions of the tail. They were then prepared for what was to be the first ever mounted display of a sauropod skeleton, at Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History in 1905. The missing bones were created using pieces from known close relatives of Brontosaurus. Sauropod feet that were discovered at the same quarry were added, as well as a tail fashioned to appear as Marsh believed it should, and a composite model of what he felt the skull of this massive creature might look like. This was not a delicate Diplodocus-style skull, which would later turn out to be more accurate,[10]), but was composed of "the biggest, thickest, strongest skull bones, lower jaws and tooth crowns from three different quarries",[11] consisting primarily of those of Camarasaurus, the only other sauropod for which good skull material was known at the time. This method of reconstructing incomplete skeletons based on the more complete remains of related dinosaurs continues in museum mounts and life restorations to-date.
Despite the much-publicized debut of the mounted skeleton, which cemented the name Brontosaurus in the public consciousness, Elmer Riggs had published a paper in the 1903 edition of Geological Series of the Field Columbian Museum which argued that Brontosaurus was not different enough from Apatosaurus to warrant its own genus, and created the combination Apatosaurus excelsus: "In view of these facts the two genera may be regarded as synonymous. As the term 'Apatosaurus' has priority, 'Brontosaurus' will be regarded as a synonym."
Despite this, at least one paleontologist—Robert Bakker—argued in the 1990s that A. ajax and A. excelsus are in fact sufficiently distinct that the latter continues to merit a separate genus.[12] In 2015 Emanuel Tschopp, Octávio Mateus, and Roger Benson released a paper that argued that Apatosaurus excelsus, originally classified as Brontosaurus excelsus, had enough morphological differences from other species of Apatosaurus that it warranted being reclassified as a separate genus again. The conclusion was based on a comparison of 477 morphological characteristics across 81 different dinosaurs. Among the many notable differences were the wider - and presumably stronger - neck of other Apatosaurus species compared to A. excelsus. Other species previously assigned to Apatosaurus, such as Elosaurus parvus and Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin were also reclassified as Brontosaurus. However, some are skeptical of the large number of sauropod taxa in the Morrison, instead grouping taxa like Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus together.[13]
Palaeobiology[]
Apatosaurus femur in Cosmocaixa, Barcelona
Early on, it was believed that Apatosaurus was too massive to support its own weight on dry land, so it was theorized that the sauropod must have lived partly submerged in water, perhaps in a swamp, but recent findings do not support this. In fact, like its relative Diplodocus, Apatosaurus was a grazing animal with a very long neck and a long tail that served as a counterweight. One study found that diplodocid necks were less flexible than previously believed, and that sauropods like Apatosaurus were adapted to low browsing or ground feeding. Fossilized footprints indicate that it probably lived in herds. To aid in processing food, Apatosaurus may have swallowed gizzard stones (gastroliths) the same way many birds do today — its jaws alone were not sufficient to chew tough plant fibers, a common sight in many Diplodocid animals during the Late Jurassic. So it might've grazed on soft marshy reeds or thin plant stalks.
In 2008, footprints of juvenile Apatosaurus were reported from Quarry Five in Morrison, Colorado. Discovered in 2006 by Matthew Mossbrucker, these footprints show that juveniles could run on their hind legs in a manner similar to that of the modern basilisk lizard.[14]
Posture[]
Artistic interpretation of an individual of A. louisae arching its neck down to drink
Tracks of a juvenile
In the early 20th century, diplodocids like Apatosaurus were often portrayed with their necks held high up in the air, allowing them to graze from tall trees. More recently, scientists have argued that the heart would have had trouble sustaining sufficient blood pressure to oxygenate the brain. Furthermore, more recent studies have shown that the structure of the neck vertebrae would not have permitted the neck to bend far upwards.[15][16] However, subsequent studies demonstrated that all tetrapods appear to hold their necks at the maximum possible vertical extension when in a normal, alert posture, and argued that the same would hold true for sauropods barring any unknown, unique characteristics that set the soft tissue anatomy of their necks apart from other animals. Apatosaurus like Diplodocus would have held its neck at about a 45 degree angle with the head pointed downwards in a resting posture.[17]
Physiology[]
Tail vertebrae of specimen FMNH P25112, showing pneumatic fossae (holes)
With Apatosaurus possessing such a large body mass, combined with a long neck, physiologists have had problems determining how the animals managed to breathe.
Beginning with the assumption that Apatosaurus, like crocodilians, did not have a diaphragm, the dead-space volume (the amount of unused air remaining in the mouth, trachea and air tubes after each breath) has been estimated at about 184 liters for a 30 ton specimen.
Its tidal volume (the amount of air moved in or out during a single breath) has been calculated based on the following respiratory systems:
- 904 liters if avian
- 225 liters if mammalian
- 19 liters if reptilian.
On this basis, its respiratory system could not have been reptilian, as its tidal volume would not have been able to replace its dead-space volume. Likewise, the mammalian system would only provide a fraction of new air on each breath. Therefore, it must have had either a system unknown to modern science or an avian system, i.e. multiple air sacs and a flow-through lung. Furthermore, an avian system would only need a lung volume of about 600 liters compared to a mammalian requirement of 2,950 liters, which would exceed the available space. The overall thoracic volume of Apatosaurus has been estimated at 1,700 liters allowing for a 500-liter, four-chambered heart (like birds, not three-chambered like reptiles) and a 900-liter lung capacity. That would allow about 300 liters for the necessary tissue. Assuming Apatosaurus had an avian respiratory system and a reptilian resting-metabolism, it would need to consume only about 262 liters (69 gallons) of water per day.[18]
Teeth and Digestion[]
Apatosaurus had forelimbs which were just shorter than its hindlimbs. Its jaws were lined with rake-like teeth, packed into rows to mulch tough plants. It is possible it may have ingested gastroliths, stones which help break down food located in an animals gut, which are then defecated out. Diplodocids like Apatosaurus have been documented with gastroliths in their intestinal tracts and their stomachs. Some Apatosaurus have articulation in their teeth, and teeth that expose an enamel surface lack scratches, only wear and a 'sugary' texture.
Growth[]
Juvenile A. sp. mount, Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History
One study placed the growth rate of Apatosaurus at about 5000 kilograms (11,000 pounds) per year, reaching full size at bout 10 years of life, using growth lines in the fossils. However, another study states Apatosaurus grew roughly 520 kilograms (1150 pounds) in mass per year, reaching full size before 70 years of age, using limb lengths and body mass. However, this method of estimation may not be accurate, as growth lines in Apatosaurus' bones may be destroyed by bone remodeling. Another growth factor for Apatosaurus is the total number of sacral vertebrae, which increases by five by maturity. This was noted in 1903, and again in 1936. Specimens can be histologically analyzed, showing scientists that several specimens reached maturity at different times and grew to different amounts.
Apatosaurus is known from a lot of juvenile specimens. Multiple specimens in the OMNH collection are from an indeterminate Apatosaurus species. The material includes: partial shoulder and pelvic girdles, vertebrae and several limb bones, The A. sp. material comes from overlapping material, from different ages, from at least three different individuals. The specimens likely belong to the genus. Juveniles usually have shorter necks and tails, and a greater difference in limb sizes.
Tail[]
Skeletal diagram of A. louisae, showing the long, tapering tail
An article that appeared in the November 1997 issue of Discover Magazine reported research into the mechanics of Apatosaurus tails by Nathan Myhrvold, a computer scientist from Microsoft. Myhrvold carried out a computer simulation of the tail, which in diplodocids like Apatosaurus was a very long, tapering structure resembling a bullwhip. This computer modeling suggested that sauropods were capable of producing a whip-like cracking sound of over 200 decibels, comparable to the volume of a cannon.[19]
The end of Apatosaurus' tail is often depicted with barbs at the tip of its tail to further injure predators. Further studies concluded that the bullwhip-functionalities of the tail would hurt the animal, but instead the tail could make sounds of up to 200 decibels. Further studies say that such an action would have injured the animal, due to its vertebrae being so delicate. Apatosaurus' tail was most of its body and was so long and fast, it could break the sound barrier like a whip. However, they likely did not use their tail for defense, as it would have been incredibly painful for the animal. Apatosaurus likely used the long, stiff tail as a whip to ward off predators, such as packs of hungry Allosaurus'. The tail could have also created loud noises, not only for scaring predators, even for territorial disputes. Unlike many other diplodocids, the animals tail had decreasingly tall vertebrae, at the smallest at the tip at its farthest from the hips.
Paleoecology[]
Saurophaganax and A. ajax, Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History
Apatosaurus lived in the Morrison Formation during the Late Jurassic. The animal lived in large familial groupings and were often pursued by Allosaurus, Saurophaganax, Torvosaurus, and other large carnivores of the Morrison. Apatosaurus' habitat was ruled by many large predators, as well as many smaller coelurosaurs. Despite the Morrison being chalk-full of predators, Apatosaurus coexisted with Brachiosaurus, Brontopodus, Camarasaurus, Cathetosaurus, Diplodocus, Dinheirosaurus, Amphicoelias and countless other diverse sauropods. It also lived with the ornithopods Camptosaurus, Dryosaurus, Nanosaurus and Uteodon.
Cultural influence[]
The length of time taken for Marsh's misclassification to be brought to public notice meant that the name Brontosaurus, due to its association with one of the largest known dinosaurs, became so famous that it persisted long after the name had officially been abandoned in scientific use. The terms "brontosaurus", "brontosaurs", and "brontosaurians" are often used to refer generically to any of the sauropod dinosaurs.
In 1989, the U.S. Post Office issued four "dinosaur" stamps, featuring Tyrannosaurus, Stegosaurus, "Pteradon" (misspelling of Pteranodon), and Brontosaurus. The inclusion of these last two led to complaints of "fostering scientific illiteracy",[20] due to Pteranodon being a pterosaur and not a dinosaur, and Brontosaurus being an invalid taxon. The Post Office defended itself (in Postal Bulletin 21744) by saying, "Although now recognized by the scientific community as Apatosaurus, the name "Brontosaurus" was used for the stamp because it is more familiar to the general population." Stephen Jay Gould supported this position in his essay "Bully for Brontosaurus", though he echoed Riggs' original argument that "Brontosaurus" is a synonym for "Apatosaurus". Nevertheless, he noted that the creature has developed and continues to maintain an independent existence in the popular imagination.[21]
Brontosaurus has often been depicted in cinema; the 1925 silent film The Lost World featured, using special effects by Willis O'Brien, a battle between a Brontosaurus and an Allosaurus. The 1933 movie King Kong featured a Brontosaurus, as did the 2005 remake, described using the fictional scientific name "Brontosaurus baxteri", or Baxter's Thunder-Lizard, after a character in the film. The 1933 Brontosaurus was inaccurately portrayed as a carnivore. The brontosaur of the 2005 film is noticeably different from the modern view of Apatosaurus, with a square head, low-hanging tail, and snake-like neck reminiscent of 1930s period depictions of the species in art.
When George Lucas made his special edition of Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope in 1997, he added some large, long-necked animals based on the Brachiosaurus digital model from Jurassic Park. At an early stage he altered the CG department's suggested name "Bronto," taken from Brontosaurus, to "Ronto".[22]
In the TV sitcom Dinosaurs, Fran's friend Monica is an Apatosaurus[23] real estate agent (shown as a bright blue neck and head, wearing a pearl necklace) voiced by Suzie Plakson.
Cabazon, California features several lifesize dinosaur sculptures, including an Apatosaurus-shaped building titled "Dinny the Dinosaur" (pronounced "Dine-ee").
JPInstitute.com Description[]
Apatosaurus is one of the most famous of the giant Jurassic plant-eaters. It was a huge, long-necked dinosaur, longer than two school buses and weighing as much as 7 elephants! If you look at older dinosaur books, you might not find Apatasaurus, but you will see Brontosaurus. This was the name that was used for this dinosaur when the wrong head was mistakenly put on its body! For years an Apatasaurus body stood with the head of Camarasaurus on the end of its neck. This was named Brontosaurus and was one of the most popular dinosaurs for many years.
Apatosaurus is a fairly typical member of the diplodocid family - long neck, pillar like legs, long tapering tail and enormous size. It had, like the other family members, peg-like teeth in a head that seemed very small for such a large creature. Compared to Diplodocus, Apatosaurus has a shorter, thicker neck and a larger, heavier body. There is much speculation about how much these creatures needed to eat and how such a small head could ingest enough food to fuel such a large body. Some scientists have stated that these huge, small-headed creatures would have needed to eat every waking moment in order to provide enough food to keep such a large body alive. Apatosaurus seemed to have every adaptation needed for continuous eating, including having nostrils on the top of its head, so breathing would not interfere with eating.
In order to facilitate the processing of food, which it could not chew with its teeth, Apatosaurus probably swallowed stones that it kept in a gizzard similar to that found in a chicken. The tough plant fibers would spend time in the gizzard stewing and being ground up by the stones.
Dinosaur Field Guide Description[]
Apatosaurus ("deceptive lizard") looks very much like Diplodocus, its closest relative. On the inside, however, it is very different. Apatosaurus is very massive, with thick bones and a stocky body. Diplodocus is slender, with thinner bones. Apatosaurus was one of the very first dinosaurs to have a picture of its completely restored skeleton published in newspapers. This happened in the 1880s, and the dinosaur's immense size made world headlines, One feature that Apatosaurus has in common with other closely related sauropods, or giant plant-eaters, is that the openings for its nostrils are on top of its head, behind its eyes. (Normally nostrils are located at the end of the snout, as in the Ornithischia, the other major group of plant-eating dinosaurs.) This setup enabled Apatosaurus to breathe through an air passage to the rear of its throat--like a human-making it possible to chew a mouthful of plants and breathe at the same time. If you want to see why this is important, pinch your own nose closed and try chewing without breathing through your mouth. Be careful not to choke! The study of Apatosaurus has had a major influence on the study of all dinosaurs. In the 1970s, a study of its skeleton was used to show how sauropods lived on land, and not in the water as had been assumed for many decades. In 1979, it was learned that the wrong head had been mounted on every Apatosaurus skeleton in museums since the 1880s (the older mounts had heads based on Camarasaurus). In the 1990s, a study of Apatosaurus bones showed that its head and neck were not held vertically as had been portrayed in many illustrations. The science of how a body can or cannot function is called functional morphology, and Apatosaurus is one of the best dinosaurs for use in this study because of its large size.
Fun Facts[]
One species of Apatosaurus was named after a millionaire's wife in the hope it would bring more funding!
Trivia[]
Apatosaurus was once considered to be a different animal from the sauropod called Brontosaurus. Now we know they are the same dinosaur.
Gallery[]
Appearance in Jurassic Park and other media[]
Jurassic Park[]
Apatosaurus appears as a background dinosaur in Jurassic World, although it has a major scene where one died by its wounds from the Indominus rex. A teaser for the Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom reveals that five more Apatosaurus have managed to survived the rampage of the Indominus rex before her death, but they and the other dinosaurs will now face a new danger in the form of an impending volcanic eruption. The Apatosaurus were also seen in Dominion.
- Apatosaurus is featured in Jurassic World: Alive, as a common dinosaur, and also the dinosaur with the highest health ranking.
- Apatosaurus does appear in Jurassic World: Evolution, seen in several trailers, and can be mined in dig sites across Western North America.
- Originally, only Apatosaurus skeleton and a statue of it could be purchased as decorations for Jurassic World: The Game, but after the June 29, 2016 update, it became a cloneable VIP dinosaur in the solid gold pack.
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Read more Apatosaurus on Jurassic Park Wiki |
The Land Before Time[]
Many characters in The Land Before Time are Apatosaurus. Examples of Apatosaurus in the series include the main protagonist Littlefoot, his mother, his father, and his grandparents. Others include Littlefoot's distant cousin Ali, her mother, Ali's friend Rhett and the herd to which they belong, led by the matriarch known as the Old One.
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Read more Apatosaurus on Land Before Time Wiki |
We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story[]
where Rex mistakenly befriends an Apatosaurus balloon.
Links[]
References[]
- ↑ Foster, J. (2007). "Appendix." Jurassic West: The Dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation and Their World. Indiana University Press. pp. 327-329.
- ↑ Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. (2008) Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages Supplementary Information
- ↑ Taylor, M.P. and Naish, D. (2005). "The phylogenetic taxonomy of Diplodocoidea (Dinosauria: Sauropoda)." PaleoBios, 25(2): 1–7. (download here)
- ↑ Harris, J.D. (2006). "The significance of Suuwassea emiliae (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) for flagellicaudatan intrarelationships and evolution." Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, 4(2): 185–198.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Template:Cite journal
- ↑ Carpenter, K. and McIntosh, J. (1994). "Upper Jurassic sauropod babies from the Morrison Formation", In: K. Carpenter, K. F. Hirsch, and J. R. Horner (eds.), Dinosaur Eggs and Babies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 265–278
- ↑ Upchurch, Paul; Tomida, Yukimitsu; and Barrett, Paul M. (2004). "A new specimen of Apatosaurus ajax (Sauropoda: Diplodocidae) from the Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic) of Wyoming, USA." National Science Museum monographs 26: i-118 ISSN:13429574
- ↑ Bakker, R.T. (1998). "Dinosaur mid-life crisis: the Jurassic-Cretaceous transition in Wyoming and Colorado". In: S.G. Lucas, J.I. Kirkland, & J.W. Estep (eds.) Lower and Middle Cretaceous Terrestrial Ecosystems; New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 14: 67–77.
- ↑ Template:Cite book
- ↑ McIntosh, J.S. and Berman, D.S. (1975). "Description of the palate and lower jaw of the sauropod dinosaur Diplodocus (Reptilia: Saurischia) with remarks on the nature of the skull of Apatosaurus." Journal of Paleontology, 49(1): 187–199.
- ↑ Bakker, Robert (1994). "The Bite of the Bronto" Earth 3:(6):26–33.
- ↑ Bakker, R.T. (1998). "Dinosaur mid-life crisis: the Jurassic-Cretaceous transition in Wyoming and Colorado". In: S.G. Lucas, J.I. Kirkland, & J.W. Estep (eds.) Lower and Middle Cretaceous Terrestrial Ecosystems; New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 14: 67–77.
- ↑ Template:Cite web
- ↑ Template:Cite journal
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- ↑ Taylor, M.P., Wedel, M.J., and Naish, D. (2009). "Head and neck posture in sauropod dinosaurs inferred from extant animals". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 54 (2), 2009: 213-220 abstract
- ↑ Paladino, F.V., Spotila, J.R., and Dodson, P. (1997). "A Blueprint for Giants: Modeling the Physiology of Large Dinosaurs." In Farlow, J.O. and Brett-Surman, M.K. (eds.), The Complete Dinosaur, Indiana University Press, 491–504. doi0253333490.
- ↑ Zimmer, C. (1997). "Dinosaurs in Motion." Discover, 1 Nov 1997. [1] Accessed 27 Jul 2008.
- ↑ " Topics of The Times; Leapin' Lizards!" The New York Times, 1989-10-11. Last accessed 2008-06-08.
- ↑ Gould, S.J. (1991). Bully for Brontosaurus: Reflections in Natural History, W. W. Norton & Co., 540pp.
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- ↑ "I loved Monica (always thought she was a Brontosaurus...)" personal communication from Suzie Plakson dated Jan. 4, 2010