Velociraptor [1] (meaning swift thief) is a genus of predatory dromaeosaur that lived during the late Cretaceous in what is now the Gobi Desert of Mongolia, Asia, about 75–71 million years ago during the later part of the Cretaceous Period.[2] Only two species are currently recognized, although others have been assigned in the past. The type species is V. mongoliensis; fossils of this species have been discovered in both Inner and Outer Mongolia in central Asia. A second species, V. osmolskae, was named in 2008 for skull material from Inner Mongolia. In the Jurassic Park universe, the "Velociraptor" is after the genus of another dromaeosaurid dinosaur known as Deinonychus. The films, like the novels, followed the unusual taxonomy created by Gregory S. Paul, who believed that Deinonychus, as well as a few other species of dromaeosaurids, could be classified under the genus "Velociraptor".[3] As for the large size of the raptors, the novel raptors were sized up for an unknown reason by author Michael Crichton while the movie raptors were made larger per Steven Spielberg's request to him being unimpressed by the size of Deinonychus.[4]
Smaller than other dromaeosaurids like Deinonychus and Achillobator, Velociraptor still shared a number of the same anatomical features. It was a bipedal, feathered carnivore with a long, stiff tail and a large sickle-shaped claw on each foot, which is thought to have been used to kill its prey. Velociraptor can be told apart from other dromaeosaurids by its long and low skull, with an upturned snout, this feature is mainly seen in larger tyrannosaurids. It is thought that Velociraptor could have ran up to 45 mph (easily out running a Protoceratops).
Velociraptor is well known to paleontologists, with over a dozen recovered fossil skeletons—the most of any dromaeosaurid. One particularly famous specimen preserves a Velociraptor locked in combat with a Protoceratops.
Description[]
Velociraptor specimens compared in size to a Template:Convert tall human
Modern depiction of Velociraptor
A Velociraptor is a small-sized dromaeosaurid that reached up to 6.8 ft long, 1.6 ft high at the hip, and weighed about 15-33 lbs.[5] The skull, which grew up to 9.8 in long, was uniquely up-curved, concave on the top surface and convex on the lower. The jaws were lined with 26–28 widely spaced teeth on each side, each more strongly serrated on the back edge than the front—possibly an skill that helped it catch and hold fast-moving prey.[6][7]
Velociraptor, like other dromaeosaurids, had a large hand with 3 curved claws, which were similar in construction and flexibility to the wing bones of birds. The 2nd digit was the longest of the 3, while the 1st was shortest. The structure of the wrist bones prevented pronation of the wrist and forced the 'hands' to be held with the palm faced in, not down.[8] The 1st toe of the foot, as in other theropods, was a small dewclaw. Unlike most theropods, which had feet with 3 toes touching the ground, dromaeosaurids like Velociraptor walked on just their 3rd and 4th toes. The 2nd digit, for which Velociraptor is famed, was highly modified and held retracted off of the ground. It bore a large, sickle-shaped claw, typical of dromaeosaurid and troodontid dinosaurs. This large claw, which could be over 2.6 in long around its outer edge, was most likely a tool to latch onto and pin down prey, or possibly use it to latch on to the bark of trees, where it would use its wings in conjunction with its claws to climb trees
As in other dromaeosaurs, The tail of Velociraptor was stiff, with long bony projections on top of the vertebrae, as well as ossified tendons under it. The projections began on the 10th tail vertebra and spread forth to brace 4 to 10 more vertebrae, depending on position in the tail. The stiffness forced the whole tail to act as a rod-like unit, preventing vertical motion between vertebrae. Yet, at least one specimen preserves a set of intact tail vertebrae curved in an S-shape, suggesting that there was really more horizontal flexibility. These adaptations of the tail may have brought balance and stability while turning, especially at high speeds.[9][10] In 2007, paleontologists reported the discovery of quill knobs on a well-preserved Velociraptor mongoliensis forearm from Mongolia, confirming the presence of feathers in this species.[11]
The specimen MPC-D 100/982, previously considered a V. mongoliensis, was found to be distinct enough from the others to be classified as a new species in 2021. It is going to be named "V. vadarostrum". The specimen is from the Flaming Cliffs locality, consisting of a nearly complete specimen differing from V. mongoliensis based on the following four features: an anteriorly abbreviated cerebellar fossa, an elongate olfactory canal, a lacrimal notch on the frontal that orients more vertically and a subvertical ridge on the ilium that sits anterodorsally to the acetabulum. These were previously considered individual variation, but no tests were performed. Nearly 15 linear measurements from eudromaeosaurs velociraptorine and non-velociraptorine to perform Principal Component Analysis, examining phenetic clustering in morphospace. This specimen falls well outside the variation, so much that it can be considered a new species. This is even greater than the variation observed in the V. osmolskae holotype. "V. vadarostrum" lived alongside V. mongoliensis[12]. In 2021, the annual SVP abstracts mentioned multiple specimens assignable to this new species[13].
History[]
Line diagram of V. mongoliensis holotype skull and associated manual ungual
On an American Museum of Natural History expedition to the Gobi Desert ( Mongolia ), in 1923, Peter Kaisen recovered the first Velociraptor fossil known: a crushed but complete skull, associated with one of the 2nd toe claws for hunting. The next year, museum chief Henry Fairfield Osborn mentioned the animal in a press article, under the name "Ovoraptor mongoliensis". However, as the name "Ovoraptor" had not been published in a scientific journal or accompanied by a description in good and due form, it remained a nomen nudum (a "naked name") and the name "Velociraptor" took priority. Later that year, Osborn designated the skull and claw (which he thought came from the hand) as belonging to a new genus, Velociraptor. This name is derived from the Latin words velox ("swift") and raptor ("thief" or "robber") and refers to the animal's fast nature and its meat diet. Osborn named the type species V. mongoliensis from the country it had been found.[14][15]
During the Cold War , Mongolia was closed to North American teams but the expeditions led by Soviet and Polish scientists, in collaboration with Mongolian colleagues, found several more fossils of Velociraptor. The best known is part of the legendary "Fighting dinosaurs" discovered by a Polish-Mongolian team in 1971. The fossil preserves a Velociraptor in the midst of a fight against a lone Protoceratops .[16][17][18] This specimen is considered a national treasure of Mongolia, although in 2000 it was loaned to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City for a temporary exhibition.
Between 1988 and 1990 , a joint Chinese-Canadian team discovered Velociraptor remains in north China.[19] US-Mongolian expeditions to the Gobi Desert, led by the American Museum of Natural History and the Mongolian Academy of Sciences, turned up new well-preserved skeletons between 1990 and 1995 .[20][21] One such specimen, IGM 100/980, was nicknamed "Ichabodcraniosaurus" by Norell's team because the fairly complete specimen was found without its skull (an allusion to the Washington Irving character Ichabod Crane). This specimen may belong to Velociraptor mongoliensis, but Norell and Makovicky concluded that it was not complete enough to say for sure, and it awaits a formal description.
Maxillae and a lacrimal (the main tooth-bearing bones of the upper jaw, and the bone that forms the anterior margin of the eye socket, respectively) recovered in 1999 by the Sino-Belgian Dinosaur Expeditions were found to pertain to Velociraptor, but not to the type species V. mongoliensis. Pascal Godefroit and colleagues named these bones V. osmolskae (for Polish paleontologist Halszka Osmólska) in 2008.
Classification[]
Velociraptor is a member of the subfamily Velociraptorinae, a sub-group of the family Dromaeosauridae. In phylogenetic taxonomy, Velociraptorinae is for the most part defined as "all dromaeosaurs more closely related to Velociraptor than to Dromaeosaurus." Dromaeosaurid classification is highly variable. Originally, the subfamily Velociraptorinae was made just to contain Velociraptor.[22] Other studies have included other genera, usually Deinonychus and Saurornitholestes.[23] A cladistic study said a monophyletic Velociraptorinae holding Velociraptor, Deinonychus, Tsaagan, and a closely related (but doubtfully placed) Saurornitholestes.[24]
Size of Velociraptor (2) compared with other dromaeosaurs
Comparison of some members of Velociraptorinae, featuring Linheraptor, Tsaagan and Velociraptor
In the past, other dromaeosaurid species, such as Deinonychus antirrhopus and Saurornitholestes langstoni, at times have been classified in the genus Velociraptor. Since Velociraptor was the first to be named, these species are now named Velociraptor antirrhopus and V. langstoni,[25] but, today the only recognized species of Velociraptor are V. mongoliensis [26][27][28] and V. osmolskae.[29]
When first described in 1924, Velociraptor was placed in the family Megalosauridae, as was the case with most carnivores at the time (Megalosauridae, like Megalosaurus, functioned as a sort of 'wastebin' taxon, where many unrelated species were grouped together).[30] As dinosaur discoveries multiplied, Velociraptor was later approved as a dromaeosaurid. All dromaeosaurids have also been referred to the family Archaeopterygidae by at least one author (which would, in effect, make Velociraptor a flightless bird) [31]
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Paleobiology[]
Predatory behavior[]
Despite the lack of evidence for Velociraptor in particular predating in groups, there is substantial evidence that Velociraptor did prey upon Protoceratops, a horned dinosaur that was related to the Triceratops. The small ceratopsian lived in Asia along with other small ceratopsians like Udanoceratops, Bagaceratops, Yamaceratops, Helioceratops and Asiaceratops. The conclusion of the predator/prey relationship between Velociraptor and Protoceratops comes from a discovery made in 1971, wherein scientists found a very well preserved fossil of a Velociraptor locked in combat with a Protoceratops. The fossil showed a Protoceratops biting the arm of the Velociraptor, and the Velociraptor using its sickle-claw and pierce into the Protoceratops' throat. In the end, however, both of the dinosaurs ultimately met their end when a sandslide killed the two dinosaurs, and their bodies were left in the ground.
Feathers[]
In September 2007, researchers found quill knobs on the forearm of a Velociraptor found in Mongolia. These bumps on bird wing bones show where feathers anchor, and their presence on Velociraptor indicate it too had feathers.[32] Turner and colleagues interpreted the presence of feathers on Velociraptor as evidence that the ancestors of dromaeosaurids could fly, making Velociraptor and other large members of this family secondarily flightless. This idea has since been discarded; the unmodified forearms count against it. Therefore, the feathers in the ancestors of Velociraptor had another function. The feathers of the flightless Velociraptor may have been used for display, for covering their nests while brooding.[33]
Feeding[]
The Fighting Dinosaurs.
The Fighting Dinosaurs, preserving Velociraptor mongoliensis and Protoceratops andrewsi locked in combat, were thought to have drowned in a flood upon discovery, but they were found in sand dune deposits. This specimen shows direct predatory behaviour. They likely died due to a collapsing dune or a sandstorm, and burial must have been quick, since they were buried and preserved in a lifelike, articulate pose. Parts of the Protoceratops are missing, finding evidence of scavenging from other animals. Comparisons of the sclerotic rings show Velociraptor may have been nocturnal, with Protoceratops being cathemeral, showing the fight likely occurred at twilight.
Size comparison of the Fighting Dinosaurs
The sickle claw is typically depicted as a slashing weapon, used to disembowel prey. The Fighting Dinosaurs shows this claw embedded in the underside of its prey, while the prey clamps its forelimb in their beak. This suggests Velociraptor used these claws to target vitals, such as the jugular, carotid artery or trachea rather than the abdomen. This is further solidified by the claw's inside being rounded and not unusually sharp, showing such a slashing action was not possible. Additionally, the thick abdominal wall of large dinosaurs would have been difficult to completely slash through, but scatching its surface would have been easier. This was tested in The Truth About Killer Dinosaurs (2005), a documentary that used an artificial sickle claw and leg against a pork belly. The sickle penetrated the abdominal wall, but could not tear it open. This indicates it was not used to disembowel.
Deinonychus are often found in large groups and associated with Tenontosaurus, which has been used as evidence for pack hunting in Velociraptor. However, the only solid evidence for this is a Chinese trackway site showing 6 individuals of a large species moving together. Many specimens found are segregated, and not associated with others. Thus, the common depiction of Velociraptor as a pack hunter is not seen as credible to Velociraptor specifically, though some dromaeosaurs are thought to have done this. Few genera may have hunted in packs, but no evidence of this is present in Velociraptor.
A V. mongoliensis uses RPR to restrain prey.
Denver Fowler et al. (2011) suggested a new capture and restraint method for dromaeosaurs, known as "raptor prey restraint" (RPR), suggesting they killed like modern accipitrid birds of prey (leaping onto prey, restraining them under their weight and gripping them tightly with their curved claws. Like accipitrids, they suggested they would begin to feed upon their prey before death, and the prey would eventually die via blood loss and organ failure. They compare leg and feet morphology to extant birds who do this, finding they were most similar to eagles and hawks, especially with the enlarged second claw and grasping range. The short metatarsus and foot strength, however are most similar to owls. RPR fits Velociraptor's anatomy, such as strange jaw and arm morphology; the former could exert a lot of force and had wings, likely used as flapping stabilizers to balance atop struggling prey with its stiff tail. Fowler et al. finds the jaws are comparatively, used for row saw motion bites like the Komodo dragon, to finish prey if kicks were not powerful enough. These may have been the origin for flapping in paraves.
Endocranial examinations indicate it could hear a range of 2368-3965 hertz, tracking prey with ease. This suggests it was an agile, swift predator. Evidence suggests Velociraptor scavenged, being opportunistic, but was an active predator. It ate carrion during drought or food shortage, if it were in poor health or depending on age.
Hone et al. (2010) found, based on a 2008 discovery, a shed tooth of cf. Velociraptor near a tooth-marked mandible of Protoceratops in the Bayan Mandahu Formation, finding it was a "late-stage carcass consumption by Velociraptor", since a predator would have targeted other areas before feeding upon the jaw, and that Protoceratops was a prey item because of the Fighting Dinosaurs specimen. Hone et al. (2012) found an azhdarchid long bone in the gut of a Velociraptor, which was interpreted as scavenging[34].
Metabolism[]
3D scan and nasal cavity reconstruction of V. mongoliensis skull MPC-D 100/54
Velociraptor was, to some degree, warm-blooded, requiring a significant amount of energy to hunt. Modern animals with feathery or furry integument tend to be warm-blooded, since they are used in insulation. However, bone growth rates in dromaeosaurs and some early birds show a moderate metabolism when compared with modern warm-blooded birds and mammals. Kiwi birds are similar to dromaeosaurs, anatomy wise; as in their feather type, bone structure and nasal passage anatomy reflecting their metabolism. Kiwis are active and specialized, with a stable body temperature and a (fairly) low metabolism. This makes it a good comparison for dromaeosaurs and primitive birds[34].
Paleopathology[]
One V. mongoliensis skull has 2 parallel rows of small punctures matching the spacing and size of Velociraptor teeth. Thus, it is believed this was inflicted by another Velociraptor while fighting, showing no signs of healing around these wounds. It likely died because of such wounds. One specimen with azhdarchid remains in its gut preserves an injury in its ribs. It was recovering from or sustaining, with the azhdarchid bone devoid of pittinf or deformation from digestion, showing it died early after consumption, or possibly from the reported injury.
Paleoecology[]
Restoration of V. mongoliensis in the arid Djadochta settings
V. mongoliensis are recovered from the Djadochta (or Djadokhta) Formation of Ömnögovi, Mongolia, with other Velociraptor from the (slightly) younger Barun Goyot Formation, but are intermediate and may be an intermediate genus. These date to the Campanian (83-70 million years ago) of the Late Cretaceous. The type is from the Flaming Cliffs site, the Fighting Dinosaurs from Tugrig and Khulsan and Khermeen Tsav producing remains of Velociraptor or a related genus. Juvenile V. mongoliensis are reported from the Bayan Manadhu Formation. However, these have not been prepared or described yet (as of 2008). A partial skull from the same locality comprises V. osmolskae.
It lived in an arid environment with sand dune fields and intermittent streams, with the Barun Goyot seeming to be wetter than the Djadochta. The posture and preservation of any specimens show they were entombed alive during sandstorms or by collapsing dunes. In the Djadochta, V. mongoliensis lived with Protoceratops andrewsi and Pinacosaurus grangeri, with the Bayan Mandahu housing V. osmolskae, Protoceratops hellenikorhinus and Pinacosaurus mephistocephalus These species compositions may be due to a barrier separating these ecosystems, but since none are known and both are relatively close by, a slight time difference is suspected.
The V. mongoliensis locality includes Saurornithoides, Mahakla and Oviraptor. V. osmolskae lived with Bagaceratops, Machairasaurus and Linheraptor[34].
JPInstitute.com Description[]
Since the movie "Jurassic Park", Velociraptor has become the most famous dinosaur, even more so than T. rex. What is interesting is that it doesn't really look like the movie dinosaur. Velociraptor is much smaller than in the film and it has a longer, thinner snout. Still, pound for pound, Velociraptor was a very effective killing machine!
One of the most unique aspects of Velociraptor is the "Killing Claw" it has on each foot. Each inside toe has a large (about 5 inches) hooked claw that is controlled by a strong tendon. This claw is held upward when the animal is walking or running. However, when it attacks, the tendon snaps tight and the claw snaps down with great speed and force, slicing deeply into the victim. Not a very pretty picture, but an effective way to inflict a serious wound.
Velociraptor was probably a pack hunter, which would have allowed it to attack prey much larger than itself. It also had a very large brain relative to its size - it was one of the smartest dinosaurs. It was very light and very fast. Recent thinking is that it was also very close to being birdlike, and that it had feathers that it used both for display and insulation. It had very strong arms and claws, which were effective weapons by themselves. It had sharp, recurved teeth in its long mouth. One of the most fascinating fossil discoveries ever made is of a Velociraptor locked in mortal combat with a Protoceratops. Both creatures probably died instantly in a sandstorm and their bodies were buried with the claws of the raptor in the body of the little ceratopsian, whose mouth was firmly locked on the raptors leg.
Dinosaur Field Guide Description[]
Velociraptor ("swift hunter") is probably the most famous meat-eating dinosaur after Tyrannosaurus. Although it was first described in 1923, it was made famous to most people by its starring role in Jurassic Park. Velociraptor is one of the dromaeosaurs, or raptor dinosaurs. It is actually a pretty small, but fierce dinosaur, with a skull only 7 inches (18 cm) long. (The dinosaurs shown in Jurassic Park are too big to be true Velociraptors.) Its arms are long and end in powerful grasping claws. Its feet have huge sickle-shaped claws, which could retract when not in use. A spectacular fossil from Mongolia shows exactly how these claws were used. The fossil shows a Velociraptor and a little horned dinosaur--Protoceratops-locked in their final battle. The hands of the Velociraptor are clutching the skull of the Protoceratops, while the left foot claw of the raptor is buried deep in the horned dinosaur's neck. The Velociraptor was apparently in the midst of ripping out the throat of the Protoceratops when the two were buried in a sand dune. (The little horned dinosaur seems to have had its revenge, however, as the Velociraptor's right arm was in its beak. The Protoceratops no doubt bit it off with its final bite!)
Fun Facts[]
A fossil of Velociraptor has been found with a bite mark through the top of the skull. The bite matches that of another Velociraptor. This shows that Velociraptors killed each other.
Trivia[]
In the movie Jurassic Park, Dr. Grant is digging up a skeleton of Velociraptor in Montana; this would indeed be an amazing discovery, as true Velociraptor is known only from Asia!
Gallery[]
Appearance in other media[]
Jurassic Park[]
- Along with Tyrannosaurus rex, Velociraptor is popular in films and documentaries due to its infamy in the Jurassic Park series. It is featured in all of the Jurassic Park & Jurassic World movies, especially the first and the second Jurassic World movie, where they are known not to attack, and, instead, are trained to “protect” people. The four Velociraptors were named Blue, Delta, Echo & Charlie, by their trainer, Owen Grady, with Blue being the only survivor. Later on, in Dominion, Blue gives offspring asexually leading to a new raptor for the franchise. This new raptor, called Beta, is colored exactly like blue and is kidnapped by poachers, kicking off the plot.
- Velociraptor is the first dinosaur seen in Jurassic Park. The first scene features a raptor being transported into the paddock. In the second half of the movie, the raptors break out of their pen and are the main threat that stands between the humans and their means of escaping the island.
- In the second movie, The Lost World: Jurassic Park, a Velociraptor pack inhabits the abandoned village on Isla Sorna. The humans, who are stranded on the island, have to run and fight their way through the raptors to reach the phone in the village and reach the helicopter. Nearly all of the Velociraptors (save for one) in this film are more brightly colored compared to the completely brown raptors in the first film. This is never explained in the film itself, but behind the scenes material has stated that the colored raptors were the males of the species.
- In Jurassic Park III, the raptors have more varied colors. The males are colored purple with a very light bluish stripe along their back and red spots on their nasal ridges. The males of these raptors had quills on the top of their heads, but the females don't. The females are white-light gray with black spots. In general they had crests with more elongated and pointed skulls. The raptors are stalking the humans to retrieve their stolen eggs.
- In Jurassic World, Jurassic World: Camp Cretaceous, Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom, and Jurassic World: Dominion, the raptors are now in different colors. Blue, and her daughter, Beta, has bluish-gray skin with a white stripe with metallic blue in the middle going horizontally from her eye orbit, with one side has blue around the eye, while the other side’s stripe stop so at the head, down to the tip of her tail which the LEGO website states comes from the DNA of the black-throated African monitor lizard (Varanus albigularis microstictus) used in her creation. Echo is brown with dark blue striping as well as having dark blue around her eyes. The most noticeable trait is the scar on the left side of her muzzle. Charlie is green with black vertical stripes running down her back. Delta is a teal color, with no stripes on her back or tail. Charlie looked similar to Delta, except Charlie was a darker light green with black stripes.
- The same Velociraptors from the Jurassic Park movie have been appeared in the Jurassic Park Telltale game.
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Read more Velociraptor on Jurassic Park Wiki |
The Land Before Time[]
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Read more Velociraptor on Land Before Time Wiki |
We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story[]
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Links[]
References[]
- ↑ Velociraptor = 'swift robber', sometimes called 'raptor' for short.
- ↑ Template:Cite journal
- ↑ Paul, Gregory S. (1988). Predatory Dinosaurs of the World. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 464pp. ISBN 978-0671619466.
- ↑ Bakker, Robert T. (1995) Raptor Red, p. 4. (Google Books) Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books/about/Raptor_Red.html?id=6LSERLP3BFsC&source=kp_cover
- ↑ Paul, Gregory S. (1988). Predatory Dinosaurs of the World. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 464pp. ISBN 978-0-6716-1946-6.
- ↑ Osborn, Henry F. (1924a). "Three new Theropoda, Protoceratops zone, central Mongolia". American Museum Novitates 144: 1–12.
- ↑ Barsbold, Rinchen; Osmólska, Halszka (1999). "The skull of Velociraptor (Theropoda) from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 44 (2): 189–219.
- ↑ Paul, Gregory S. (2002). Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of Flight in Dinosaurs and Birds. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801867637.
- ↑ Barsbold, Rinchen (1983). "Carnivorous dinosaurs from the Cretaceous of Mongolia". Transactions of the Joint Soviet-Mongolian Paleontological Expedition 19: 5–119.
- ↑ Norell, Mark A.; Makovicky, Peter J. (1999). "Important features of the dromaeosaurid skeleton II: information from newly collected specimens of Velociraptor mongoliensis". American Museum Novitates 3282: 1–45.
- ↑ Turner, A.H.; Makovicky, P.J.; Norell, M.A. (2007). "Feather quill knobs in the dinosaur Velociraptor". Science 317 (5845): 1721. doi:10.1126/science.1145076. PMID 17885130.
- ↑ https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/vamp/index.php/VAMP/article/view/29374/21426
- ↑ https://vertpaleo.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/SVP_2021_VirtualBook_final.pdf
- ↑ Osborn, Henry F. (1924a). "Three new Theropoda, Protoceratops zone, central Mongolia". American Museum Novitates 144: 1–12.
- ↑ Osborn, Henry F. (1924b). "The discovery of an unknown continent". Natural History 24: 133–149.
- ↑ Barsbold, Rinchen (1983). "Carnivorous dinosaurs from the Cretaceous of Mongolia". Transactions of the Joint Soviet-Mongolian Paleontological Expedition 19: 5–119.
- ↑ Kielan-Jaworowska, Zofia; Barsbold, Rinchen (1972). "Narrative of the Polish-Mongolian Paleontological Expeditions". Paleontologica Polonica 27: 5–13.
- ↑ Barsbold, Rinchen (1974). "Saurornithoididae, a new family of theropod dinosaurs from Central Asia and North America". Paleontologica Polonica 30: 5–22.
- ↑ Jerzykiewicz, Tomasz; Currie, Philip J.; Eberth, David A.; Johnston, P.A.; Koster, E.H.; Zheng, J.-J. (1993). "Djadokhta Formation correlative strata in Chinese Inner Mongolia: an overview of the stratigraphy, sedimentary geology, and paleontology and comparisons with the type locality in the pre-Altai Gobi". Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 30 (10): 2180–2195. doi:10.1139/e93-190.
- ↑ Norell, Mark A.; Makovicky, Peter J. (1999). "Important features of the dromaeosaurid skeleton II: information from newly collected specimens of Velociraptor mongoliensis". American Museum Novitates 3282: 1–45.
- ↑ Norell, Mark A.; Makovicky, Peter J. (1997). "Important features of the dromaeosaur skeleton: information from a new specimen". American Museum Novitates 3215: 1–28.
- ↑ Barsbold, Rinchen (1983). "Carnivorous dinosaurs from the Cretaceous of Mongolia". Transactions of the Joint Soviet-Mongolian Paleontological Expedition 19: 5–119.
- ↑ Currie, Philip J. (1995). "New information on the anatomy and relationships of Dromaeosaurus albertensis (Dinosauria: Theropoda)". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 15 (3): 576–591. doi:10.1080/02724634.1995.10011250.
- ↑ Norell, Mark A.; Clark, James M.; Turner, Alan H.; Makovicky, Peter J.; Barsbold, Rinchen; Rowe, Timothy (2006). "A new dromaeosaurid theropod from Ukhaa Tolgod (Omnogov, Mongolia)". American Museum Novitates 3545: 1–51. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2006)3545[1:ANDTFU]2.0.CO;2.
- ↑ Paul, Gregory S. (1988). Predatory Dinosaurs of the World. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 464pp. ISBN 978-0-6716-1946-6.
- ↑ Barsbold, Rinchen; Osmólska, Halszka (1999). "The skull of Velociraptor (Theropoda) from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica '44' (2): 189–219.
- ↑ Paul, Gregory S. (2002). Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of Flight in Dinosaurs and Birds. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801867637.
- ↑ Norell, Mark A.; Makovicky, Peter J. (2004). "Dromaeosauridae". In Weishampel, David B., Dodson, Peter & Osmólska, Halszka (eds.). The Dinosauria (Second ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 196–209. ISBN 0-520-24209-2.
- ↑ Godefroit, Pascal; Currie, Philip J.; Li, Hong; Shang, Chang Yong; Dong, Zhi-ming (2008). "A new species of Velociraptor (Dinosauria: Dromaeosauridae) from the Upper Cretaceous of northern China". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 28 (2): 432–438. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2008)28[432:ANSOVD]2.0.CO;2.
- ↑ Osborn, Henry F. (1924a). "Three new Theropoda, Protoceratops zone, central Mongolia". American Museum Novitates 144: 1–12.
- ↑ Paul, Gregory S. (2002). Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of Flight in Dinosaurs and Birds. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801867637.
- ↑ Turner A.H.; Makovicky P.J.; Norell M.A. 2007. Feather quill knobs in the dinosaur Velociraptor. Science 317: 1721. PMID 17885130.
- ↑ Milner, Angela 2002. Dinobirds: from dinosaurs to birds. Natural History Museum, London.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Cite error: Invalid
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